International Maritime Organization Research Articles

Maritime cybersecurity in the Indo-Pacific: envisioning a role for the Quad

ABSTRACT Digitalization in the maritime industry has exposed offshore vessels and onshore maritime assets to increasing cyberattacks by malicious actors. The problem is particularly acute in the geopolitically fraught Indo-Pacific, a region through which 60 per cent of global maritime trade passes. The inadequacy of the international regulatory ecosystem centered around the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and other challenges have only compounded the problem. This paper argues that the Quad is most suited to address the issue of maritime cybersecurity in the Indo-Pacific. It proposes the creation of a hybrid body composed of the Quad, like-minded littoral states and maritime industry bodies from the Indo-Pacific for thwarting, responding to, and recovering from cyberattacks in the region. It argues that a localized regional response by the Quad would be preferable over unilateral measures by states or waiting for the IMO’s regulation in the form of a code or convention.

Forensic, medical and legal problems and solutions on passenger and cargo ships

Marine vehicles have an important place in international trade and tourism. There are various directives and studies on the prevention of health problems in marine vessels and injuries and deaths due to occupational accidents. In the literature, not enough studies have been found in which the issues to be considered in cases of injuries, sexual assaults, accidents, suicides and murders that are common in forensic medicine practice, and there are no guidelines or recommendations of internationally accepted organizations. It is important to determine the seafarer who is responsible for intervening in health emergencies on cargo ships, and to detect faulty ones, if any, in work accidents that result in serious injury and death. In addition, injuries, suicides and murders are encountered among the crew, and crime scene findings are lost until they are evaluated by the judicial authorities. Although rare, sexual assaults on cargo ships are also reported, but there are not enough scientific studies that indicate what should be done in terms of evidence evaluation. Our study emphasizes the issues to be considered, that one of the crew should be held responsible and necessary training should be given in order to make a forensic medical evaluation in forensic events that will be encountered on cargo ships, and that physicians and health workers should be competent in the first forensic medical evaluation in case of emergency on passenger ships. It is thought that the launch of the telemedicine application, which provides uninterrupted service for forensic medical emergencies in maritime vessels, under the leadership of organizations such as the “International Maritime Organization” (IMO), will make a significant contribution. In addition, suggestions are made for legal impasses in such cases that take place in high seas.

Validity of Capital Structure Theories in the Shipping Industry: An Application on U.S. Equity Markets

This paper analyses the financial factors that affect the capital structure decisions of 29 shipping companies in the U.S. equity markets. The study focuses on the impact of International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulations and new initiatives. The results show that leverage has a negative impact on profitability and size, in contrast to tangibility. It is also confirmed that the decisions of shipping companies regarding capital structure align with the pecking order theory of capital structure.

Effects of Wars on Merchant Seafarers: Study on Experiences and Concerns in the Russia-Ukraine War

Merchant seafarers, the key workers of the global economy as stated by the International Maritime Organization, are becoming targets of armed attacks, even if they have nothing to do with weapons. Several ships have been assaulted, and their crew members have suffered in the ongoing Russian-Ukrainian war in the Black Sea. There is a developing area of interest in the mental well-being of seafarers; however, current studies mostly focus on the effects of piracy. This research aims to offer a novel model that may identify the effects of war on seafarers, and the importance of each contributing factor that may potentially induce a concern in merchant seafarers. According to the results, financial pressures dominated over other sources of concern, which include life safety risks. The findings of this study may offer valuable data to policymakers for developing strategies with respect to the protection and well-being of seafarers.

The role of the UN institutional mechanism in ensuring ecological energy

The UN occupies a key place in the system of international organizations, coordinating international cooperation on a wide range of issues of international life. Accordingly, it is not surprising that its role is also important in the regulation of ecological energy.
 The ecological energy sector has become one of the relatively new spheres of international law development. It covers the aspects of renewable energy sources, alternative fuels, ecologically safe mechanisms of using fossil fuels that do not cause excessive damage to the environment.
 Since the 1950s, the UN Economic and Social Council was the first to raise the issue of «new energy sources» in its documents, among which renewable sources were also distinguished. It also initiated the first scientific conference on RES.
 Later, the General Assembly and the UN Security Council joined the process, the first of which initiated the annual holding of UN international conferences on renewable energy sources, and annually adopted resolutions to support RES in the world. In the future, by creating auxiliary bodies, they promoted ecological energy within the framework of sustainable development, such as the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development. The UN Security Council mainly considers energy issues in their connection with aspects of peace and security, for example, in the field of energy security, or bodies responsible for violations.
 Specialized institutions of the UN system also take an active part in the implementation of the concept of ecologically oriented energy. Suffice it to mention that the Kyoto Protocol of 1997 authorized the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and ICAO to establish sectoral requirements for countering greenhouse gas emissions in accordance with their competence. For ten years, UNESCO acted as the head of the World Solar Program, contributing to the implementation of Kharar Declaration on Solar Energy and Sustainable Development of 1996.
 FAO, as an organization dealing with issues of food and agriculture, has focused its attention on such a segment of renewable energy as the implementation of bioenergy programs. UNIDO focused on energy issues as the basis of sustainable industrial development. It prioritizes three aspects of energy: rural energy for production purposes with an emphasis on the use of RES, energy efficiency and climate change.
 Accordingly, within the framework of the UN, a rather extensive system of bodies and organizations has been created, which are engaged in the implementation of the tasks of ecologically oriented energy. Unfortunately, all these bodies do not have the corresponding specialized competences; they solve these tasks only within the limits of their own competence. Also, currently there is no single body for coordinating the tasks of EOE within the framework of the UN system.

PRIVATELY CONTRACTED ARMED SECURITY COMPANIES IN MERCHANT SHIPPING

Armed private security companies have recently become a method used by maritime companies to combat piracy, or attempted to do so if permitted by flag states. This issue has been regulated to a certain extent by the guiding regulations of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), but there are still clarification issues such as liability, jurisdiction, sovereignty and insurance. On this page, the current situation has been identified and maintenance-related solutions have been researched.

Challenges for the Education and Training of Seafarers in the Context of Autonomous Shipping: Bibliometric Analysis and Systematic Literature Review

The maritime industry is undergoing a profound transformation with the integration of autonomous technologies, which brings new challenges and opportunities for the education and training of seafarers. This article aims to examine the evolving landscape of autonomous ships and its impact on maritime education, with a focus on the changing roles and responsibilities of seafarers. The levels of autonomy defined by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) provide a framework for understanding the evolution towards fully autonomous ships and highlight the changing roles and responsibilities of seafarers. Using a systematic review based on the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA), this study examines maritime education for maritime autonomous surface ships (MASS). Using Scopus, Web of Science (WoS) and Google Scholar, a comprehensive search was conducted to identify relevant studies focusing on seafarer training and the impact of automation in the maritime sector. The analysis included bibliometric assessments, historical reviews and a categorization of research topics. This systematic review contributes to a deeper understanding of the current state and trends in maritime education for autonomous shipping. The findings inform educators and industry stakeholders about the critical aspects of education and training needed to address the challenges and realize the potential benefits of autonomous technologies in the maritime sector. The inclusion of bibliometric analysis enriches the study by providing a comprehensive overview of the researchers.

Safety on automated passenger ships: Exploration of evacuation scenarios for coastal vessels

Many advancements are being made within the domain of autonomous shipping, motivating discussions of corresponding amendments to international safety regulations within the International Maritime Organization. Near-coastal passenger ferries are a form of sea traffic that has been the target of automation trials due to their short voyages and relatively protected waters of operation. This study investigated emergency evacuation from a range of such ships, covering both the current situation (focused on crew tasks, external rescue actors and interactions) and safety aspects that should be considered when automation brings about new work patterns, such as remote supervision and control. The study employed qualitative methods – interviews, field visits and a stakeholder workshop. Results give insight into ferry evacuation processes and challenges in their current form. In addition, results from the application of different automated evacuation scenarios suggest that more detailed studies are needed within the areas of remote operation situation awareness, remote operator and onboard personnel competencies, passenger safety information and communication, simple and robust evacuation equipment, technical means allowing assistance between autonomous and regular ships, and lastly, both procedures and interfaces for collaboration in a changing rescue network.

White tides: The plastic nurdles problem

The proliferation of plastic pollution, particularly from nurdles (small plastic pellets used in manufacturing), poses significant environmental and ecological risks. Originating with the invention of Bakelite in 1907 and escalating post-World War II with advanced petrochemical technologies, nurdles are the second largest source of primary microplastic pollution globally. Each year an estimated 445,970 tonnes of nurdles enter the environment worldwide. Nurdle spills, such as those along Spain's Galician coast and other global incidents, underline the need for improved spill response, preventive measures, and international regulatory coordination. The environmental impact of nurdles, compared to more visible oil spills, is insidious and long-lasting due to their persistence and widespread dispersion. Current regulations, like the International Maritime Organization’s (IMO) guidelines, reveal gaps in enforcement and fail to fully address the long-term consequences of spills. Recent technological innovations and policy interventions aim to mitigate risks, but there's an urgent need for coordinated global action, stricter controls, and investment in biodegradable alternatives to safeguard marine environments and ensure ecological sustainability.

Carbon pricing for international shipping, equity, and WTO law

AbstractThe International Maritime Organization (IMO) is working on the adoption of a greenhouse gas (GHG) pricing instrument to decarbonise international shipping. This article analyses whether World Trade Organization (WTO) law can limit the implementation of an IMO GHG pricing instrument. In particular, it breaks new ground by analysing the compatibility of current proposals tabled at the IMO with the General Agreement on Trade in Services and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. In addition, it analyses whether WTO law limits the IMO's ability to adopt a GHG pricing instrument that addresses equity concerns via the implementation of exemptions for developing countries, Least Developed Countries, and Small Islands Developing States.

Effects of ship emissions on Asian haze pollution, health, and IMO strategies

Exploring the dark side of global commerce, this article considers shipping a relevant cause of environmental pollution, particularly in coastal regions, where haze threatens human health and pollutes our air. Despite this crisis, the International Maritime Organization's (IMO) climate protection strategies offer hope for a cleaner future. The IMO promotes several options to improve vessel efficiency and reduce fuel consumption and emissions. Collaboration among stakeholders is vital in steering the shipping industry toward a sustainable future.

ASSESSMENT OF HEAT BALANCE IN THE FSRU REGASIFICATION CYCLE ALIGNS WITH IMO’S DECARBONISATION STRATEGY

In 2023, the International Maritime Organization revised its greenhouse gas strategy, striving to reduce annual emissions from international shipping by at least 70% by 2040. The Mediterranean Sea will become an emission control area for sulphur oxides and particulate matter from May 2025, and the EU will include shipping in its Emission Trading System from 2024. Liquid natural gas is expected to become a cleaner marine fuel, but it alone cannot meet emission reduction goals. The cryogenic carbon capture process can separate CO2 from exhaust gases, compress it, and store it in a liquid state with high density. This study aims to integrate an energy balance equation model to analyse the energy exchange in the regasification process and identify potential areas for improvement and targeted solutions to enhance performance and comply with IMO emission regulations. Based on a mathematical model, the energy balances are calculated and yield the following results: steam heater (26,999 kW), R-290 preheater (5,837 kW), trim heater (3,290 kW), R-290 evaporator (13,322 kW), and LNG vaporiser (23,118 kW). A report also determined that within a temperature range between -56.6℃ and 31℃ and a pressure range of greater than 5.2 bar (absolute) and less than 74 bar (absolute), the CO2 is in a liquid phase. Due to CO2 density which fluctuates in liquid at 1032 kg/m3 and in solid phase at 1562 kg/m3 the physical condition is compatible with the storage stage of capture emission.

SEAKEEPING OF A 60 GT CAST NETS FISHING VESSEL AT MUARA ANGKE FISHING PORT

Based on the provisions made by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), turning ability and zig-zag maneuvers are the main criteria for safety standards for every ship that will sail. This decree was made as an effort to improve sailing skills, especially for ship crew. Calculation of the turning ability of a ship is greatly influenced by the design of the ship's hull and the design of the rudder that will be used on the ship. So the analysis of turning circles and zig-zag maneuvers is the main point that will be carried out in this research. The research was carried out on cast net vessels anchored at the Muara Angke fishing port with the vessel size taken being 60 GT. The standard provisions used in the analysis of turning ability and zig-zag maneuver are based on IMO MSC 137 (76) with the main size of the vessel used as the main research material is LOA=25.7 m, LPP =22.2 m, B=7 m, H=2.3 m, T=1.7 m. With the results obtained by the movement of the fishing vessel which meets standardization based on IMO MSC 137 (76) 2002, the turning circle maneuver has a Tactical Diameter of 46.07 m, with an Advanced value of 56.23 m, with a heading transfer value of 24.48 m, the zig-zag maneuver meets the IMO standard criteria stated for angels 10°/10° and 20°/20° do not exceed 30 seconds

Identification and detection of high NO x emitting inland ships using multi-source shore-based monitoring data

In urban areas situated along busy waterways like the Yangtze River, the diesel engines of inland navigation ships emerge as significant contributors to air pollution. Among these vessels, certain high-emission ships exhibit considerably higher levels of nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions compared to others. To effectively identify such ships, this study employed a cost-effective ship emission monitoring sensor platform, comprising high-precision gas sensors, automatic identification system receiver, and sensitive meteorological sensors, along the Yangtze River in Wuhan City. By combining multi-source shore-based monitoring data, we identified ship emission signals and proposed a high-emission ship detection method using inverse modeling. Using this method, we successfully detected inland high-emission ships based on two months of monitoring data. Furthermore, the relationship between different ship types, sizes, speeds, and ship NO x emission rates were investigated. The results of this study are beneficial for strengthening the regulation of high-emission vessels in inland waterways, thereby reducing the adverse impact of ship emissions on the environment and climate. It also encourages the inland shipping industry to adopt more environmentally friendly technologies and fuels, as advocated by the International Maritime Organization.

The International Maritime Organization’s Revised Greenhouse Gas Strategy: A Political Signal of Shipping’s Regulatory Future

Abstract The International Maritime Organization (IMO) 2023 Strategy on Reduction of GHG Emission from Ships offers few specifics from a legal perspective, but is an important political signal. IMO Member States have committed to adopt binding rules to incentivise greenhouse gas emission reductions in 2025 which will enter into force by 2027. Moreover, the Strategy calls for the elimination of shipping emissions by or around 2050 and sets checkpoints to track progress. IMO now faces key decisions to implement the Strategy, including how to structure a goal-based fuel standard, how to integrate an economic element (e.g., an emission levy) into its regulatory framework, its methods for assessing upstream emissions and effects of fuel production, and specific reduction pathways. These measures will likely be effectuated as amendments to Annex VI of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, leveraging its existing compliance and enforcement tools, including port State controls.

The area-based management tools coordination between IMO and BBNJ agreement regimes and its implications on vessel pollution control

The International Maritime Organization (IMO), as a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for the safety and security of international shipping and the prevention of pollution from ships, has applied two main area-based management tools (ABMTs): the “Special Areas” established under the MARPOL 73/78; and the “Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas” (PSSAs) established under the IMO resolutions. The new Agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ agreement) stipulates the establishment of a comprehensive system of ABMTs to conserve and sustainably use areas beyond national jurisdiction. Strengthening coordination in the use of ABMTs established by the IMO and the BBNJ Agreement is important for vessel pollution control in the high seas. The IMO is a stakeholder for relevant proposals and consultations on proposals regarding the establishment of ABMTs in the BBNJ Agreements, and can provide information on the implementation of them. The Conference of the Parties (COPs) to the BBNJ Agreement can also make recommendations to the IMO and its parties to promote the adoption of special areas and PSSAs. This article respectively elaborates on the practices and effect of ABMTs of the IMO and explores the relevant rules of the BBNJ agreement and their enforcement. Then this article discusses the possible approaches for the ABMTs coordination between the IMO and the BBNJ agreement regimes and their implications on vessel pollution Control in the high seas. Overall, relevant rules of the BBNJ agreement shall be interpreted and applied in a manner that does not undermine relevant legal instruments of the IMO. Meanwhile, it is necessary to promote cooperation and coordination between the COPs to the BBNJ Agreement and the IMO under the idea of conserving ecosystem integrity, gradually forming a normal cooperation and information exchange mechanism.

Barrier analysis to improve big data analytics capability of the maritime industry: A mixed-method approach

The maritime industry is facing increasing challenges due to decarbonization requirements, trade disruptions, and geoeconomic fragmentation, such as International Maritime Organization (IMO) sets out clear framework to reach net zero emissions by 2050, Russia-Ukraine war disrupted maritime activities in the Black and Azov seas, and increased trade tensions between the United States and China. To enhance their sustainability, operational efficiency, and competitiveness, maritime organizations are therefore very keen to build big data analytics capability (BDAC). However, various barriers, mean that only a handful are able to do so. We adopt a mixed-method approach to analyze these barriers. Thematic analysis is used to identify five categories of barriers and 16 individual barriers based on empirical data collected from 26 maritime organizations. These are then prioritized using the analytic hierarchy process (AHP), followed by total interpretive structural modelling (TISM) to understand their interrelationships. Finally, cross-impact matrix multiplications applied to classification (MICMAC) is employed to differentiate the role of each barrier based on its driving and dependence power. This paper makes several theoretical contributions. First, China's hierarchical cultural value orientation encourages competition and obedience to rules, resulting in unwillingness to share knowledge, lack of coordination, and lack of error correction mechanisms. These cultural barriers hinder BDAC development. Second, organizational learning category barriers are found to be the most important in impeding BDAC development. This study also raises practitioners' awareness of the need to tackle cultural and organizational learning barriers.

At the controls: Politics and policy entrepreneurs in EU policy to decarbonize maritime transport

AbstractThe recent adoption of the FuelEU Maritime regulation, aiming to decarbonize maritime shipping, is part of the EU clean energy transition to reach carbon neutrality by 2050. Based on autoethnographic method and qualitative text analysis, applying the multiple streams framework as a theoretical lens, this article explores and explains the politics and the policy process of FuelEU Maritime. A policy window opened with adoption of the Paris Agreement on climate change in 2015, the slow progress on climate policies in the International Maritime Organization, and the subsequent adoption of the European Green Deal in 2019 and the new EU climate law in 2021. Diverging beliefs and narratives of policy entrepreneurs, policy makers, and stakeholders on problems to be addressed and different policy options to be implemented are analyzed. There were mainly two policy entrepreneurs, advocating different problem descriptions and policy options. The European Commission proposed a technology‐neutral, goal‐based approach to reach moderate emission reductions by 2050, while a coalition led by green mobility NGO Transport & Environment advocated a technology‐specific multiplier and subquota for zero‐carbon fuels to reach carbon neutrality by 2050. The article explains the agency of Transport & Environment and allies in influencing the European Parliament and several member states in the Council of the EU to stand the grounds against incumbent shipping and fossil fuel industry that influenced the Commission to present a down‐watered policy proposal. Finally, the article exemplifies the complexity of the second‐generation energy transition required for decarbonization compared to the first‐generation transformation focusing on renewable electricity.

THE RELIABILITY EVALUATION OF THE DECK MACHINERY AND GALLEY EQUIPMENT OF A BULK CARRIER BY UTILIZING THE FAILURE RECORDS

Among various modes of transportation, maritime transportation holds critical importance since it provides substantial carrying capacity with low unit costs. To perform seamless and efficient operations in maritime transportation plays a pivotal role in achieving sustainable development goals and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) targets. The execution of uninterrupted operations can only be carried out with the existence of reliable systems. Creating reliable systems onboard is possible through the implementation of planned and proactive maintenance strategies and leveraging experiences gained from past failures. 10-year failure records of bulk carriers have been scrutinized within the scope of system reliability to determine critical equipment and units. The data has been categorized into subgroups under four fundamental headings, and subsequent reliability analyses have been conducted on each subgroup. Within the subgroups, the reliability of navigation equipment should be improved since it has the highest failure rate and its malfunction can cause very serious marine accidents. This equipment is followed by fire-fighting systems, cargo equipment, and GMDSS instruments which are essential for ship operations based on reliability results. Therefore, regular failure records, planned and proactive maintenance strategies, and also extra efforts should be performed on this equipment to ensure sustainable and seamless operations in the maritime sector.

Design principle, 4E analyses and optimization for onboard CCS system under EEDI framework: A case study of an LNG-fueled bulk carrier

With the accelerated implementation of Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) phase 3 by the International Maritime Organization, shipping carbon reduction is urgently required. This paper explores the possibility to develop the onboard carbon capture and storage (OCCS) system unstraints between EEDI phases 3 and 4. The OCCS is particularly established with the utilization of exhaust gas waste heat and LNG cold energy. The proposed OCCS system is modelled in Aspen HYSYS, laying the foundation for energy, exder the EEDI framework. The OCCS system design principle for an LNG-fueled bulk carrier is determined with the conergy, economic and environment analyses. Furthermore, the multi-objective optimization is based on the energy and exergy efficiency of OCCS system (ηen,OCCS × ηen,OCCS), payback period (PBP) and metric of carbon capture efficiency degree (MCCED) by non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-Ⅲ. The Pareto frontier indicates that the system is in optimal operation with the exhaust gas mass flow rate of 29,990 kg/h and the liquid-to-gas ratio of 1.04. The carbon capture is 1048.0 kg/h, which is 70.74% over EEDI phase 3 requirements. The optimized ηen,OCCS × ηen,OCCS is 2.92%, the PBP is 13.03 years and the MCCED is 23.00%. This study provides an important basis for the maritime post-combustion carbon reduction compliance.